Pilgrim Marpeck:  Theologian of the Incarnation 

We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach men to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood; truly God and truly man, of a reasonable soul and body; consubstantial with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood; in all things like unto us, without sin…. (The Symbol of Chalcedon, 451)¹ 

In July 1546 the Schmalkald War broke out between the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, and the Schmalkald League, a group led by the Protestant princes of Germany, most notably by John Frederick, elector of Saxony, and Philipp of Hesse. Charles sought, by force of arms, to restore religious unity to the Holy Roman Empire by bringing the Protestants back into the Catholic fold.² The Protestants, by force of arms, sought to resist this effort. Though the conflict began well for the Protestant forces, poor leadership proved to be its undoing and by the end of 1546, the tide had turned, and Charles V was on his way to victory. On 24 April 1547 the Battle of Mühlberg secured Charles’s victory; the Protestant forces were overwhelmingly defeated. On 23 July 1547 a victorious Charles rode into Augsburg in grand fashion, accompanied by a large entourage of soldiers and nobles.³ Pilgram Marpeck, leader of the Anabaptist community, likely witnessed this event. 

In February 1547, five months before Charles V rode into Augsburg, Marpeck wrote “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ” to the Swiss Brethren in the Grisons, Appenzell, St. Gall, and Alsace to seek unity with them. The Schmalkald conflict served not only as the background, but also as an example of the cause of the hostility and disunity that existed in Europe at the time. From Marpeck’s perspective, the problem was caused by both groups attempting to coerce the faith of the citizens. Despite the claims by both Protestants and Catholics alike that they were acting in the name of Christ, their un-Christlike behavior revealed a deep-seated misunderstanding of the person and work of Jesus Christ. Both groups failed to understand the deep humility of Christ in His incarnation 

Christology is the heart of Pilgram Marpeck’s theology. As Neal Blough points out, “Marpeck came to the conviction that the key to thinking and speaking about God (theology) was to understand Christ (Christology). The notion of the incarnation—consciously formulated in trinitarian categories—thus became the hermeneutical key to Scripture for Marpeck . . . .”⁴ William Klassen and Walter Klaassen agree, stating that while “Marpeck never developed a comprehensive theological system, it is generally agreed that Christology formed the center of his concern. In respect to his doctrine of Christ he laid emphasis on the humanity of Christ and its implications for church order.”⁵ Marpeck’s Christology is prominent in most of his writings.⁶ To get a snapshot of Marpeck’s Christology, priority will be given to “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” one of Marpeck’s later letters. Theology for Pilgram Marpeck is not an abstract intellectual discipline; rather, it is integrally connected to the Christian life, both individually and corporately. As the survey of “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ” will show, Marpeck moves smoothly from a strongly orthodox Trinitarian Christology to the Christian life and the church. Marpeck’s Christology, particularly Christ’s humanity and humiliation, determines the focus of the faith, the nature of the Christian life, and the ministry and mission of the church. 

Summary of “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ”

Marpeck greets the Swiss Brethren and expresses his desire to come to them and share their mutual “delight in the love and truth of the gospel of Christ.”⁷ The centrality of Christology shows up immediately in this letter. This gospel message is none other than Christ Himself, “the costliest and most esteemed treasure,” in whom “are hidden all the treasures of the secret will and pleasure of the Father . . . .”⁸ Marpeck references John 1:18 to assert that no one has seen the Father except the Son, and no one knows the Son except the Father who sent him. The importance of Christ’s humanity, then, is crucial because the “Son reveals [His Father] in his holy, external teaching. And the miracle and power of His works on earth are the Father’s testimony to His teaching.”⁹ Marpeck clearly operates on the foundation of Trinitarian orthodoxy. Second, the reference to Christ’s “external” teaching refers to his teaching “in the body,” clearly a reference to his teaching during his incarnation.¹⁰ Marpeck continues that Christ the Son was “born to the Father from the race of man . . . to liberate man from the power of the devil, sin, death, and hell, that is from the guilt of Adam into all men have come.”¹¹ The problem of humanity’s sin means that each person is under the wrath of God and outside of Christ. This, however, did not stop the Father from acting for our salvation; in fact, the Father did not spare His Son, but “delivered Him into the suffering and pain of death, even condemnation, as a salvation for men.”¹² As a result, the Holy Spirit can now dwell in the one who believes in Christ and “then [transfer them] from the earthly to the heavenly.”¹³ It is worth noting that from the outset, Marpeck’s orthodox Trinitarianism serves as a foundation for Marpeck’s theology. 

The Anabaptist leader turns his focus to the importance of Christ’s humanity by describing Christ’s body as the ark of the covenant in which are hidden all the treasures and gifts from the Father. “This ark He destroyed on the cross, and then He pried it open, which was the finishing of His work.”¹⁴ During his life on earth, Christ the Son visibly, physically taught and revealed the Father; in his suffering and death on the cross Christ finished his work and opened the treasures of his grace to humanity. However, Marpeck does not simply move from Christ’s death on the cross to his resurrection. His death on the cross may have finished his work on earth, but it did not mean the end of his humiliation. Marpeck states that Christ then had to make his descent into hell to complete his payment for sin. He asserts that “on earth and in the Pit, Christ was proclaimed. In the depth of death and in the abyss of hell, the Lord of both life and death proclaimed the Word to the dead. Here, the soul of Christ preached the gospel. On earth, Christ’s physical suffering and death proclaimed the Word to men living in the body.”¹⁵ Christ had to go to the full depths of hell to pay completely the guilt of humanity’s sin. Furthermore, Christ did not descend into hell in triumph, but in full humiliation in order to pay for sin. 

Neal Blough points out the importance of Christ’s descent into the abyss in Marpeck’s thinking: “The descent into hell is the prolongation of his death and humiliation and is understood within a historical framework, since it occurs ‘chronologically’ between Christ’s death and resurrection.”¹⁶ While Marpeck is following the historical order of the events of Christ’s suffering and resurrection, the descent into hell bears much significance. It means, first, that Christ had to pay the entire price for sin. Marpeck explains, “In His human poverty, the payer of the debt, the true warrantor, went into the depths of hell with our sins, and yet without any sin of His own, through His torment on earth in order to make payment.”¹⁷ Note the language of sacrifice, substitution, and payment in Marpeck’s language. But he goes on to describe that Christ, in descending into hell to make the full payment for sin, has taken the power of pain and death away from the devil. Here, Marpeck utilizes the language of victory. Both images of satisfaction and Christus Victor serve Marpeck’s theology. 

Marpeck also describes a second purpose for Christ’s descent into the Pit; namely, to bring salvation to those Old Covenant prisoners in hell who had been waiting for their salvation; “He took life back again out of the midst of death, together with all who have hoped for the Lord and for His salvation.”¹⁸ Marpeck believed that until Christ’s resurrection, no one was in heaven; heaven was locked until the victorious resurrected Christ opened it and brought in the saints who had died in hope of their salvation. “Thus, death has been swallowed up in victory, and Christ has emerged from death to life with all His chosen ones.”¹⁹ Marpeck explains that this is only possible through Jesus’s descent into hell, subsequent resurrection, and ascension to the Father’s right hand. The true light, Christ, who has the fullest right to shine, did not assert this power, but humbled himself; however, Christ, the true light, broke out of the darkness “of the devil, death, sin, and hell, through the brilliance of His light and clarity and returned alive from death.”²⁰ In victory, Christ took back his rightful place with the Father and the “eternal, preexistent glory” he shared with the Father since before the world’s creation. By tracing the historical order of events, Blough observes that Marpeck understands the resurrection and ascension of Christ as concrete victory over evil in the here and now of human history, rather than some abstract sense as “only in the inner person or in the eschatological future.”²¹ 

Christ’s death, burial, descent, and resurrection occur in history which inspires Marpeck immediately to describe its significance for the believer. For, “All the saints of God must learn the depths of Christ, these same depths of humility and damnation, into which the leaven of our sin brought Christ.”²² No one can experience the height of Christ’s glory without first being condemned with Christ in the depths of his suffering. For Marpeck, like Leonhard Schiemer and Hans Schlaffer before him, most people miss salvation because they want to focus on Christ’s deity and glory while avoiding his humanity and its accompanying painful, humiliating suffering. The Christian life, then, is a life of affliction and humility—this is the reality of Christ’s life in his incarnation; it is, therefore, the life of Christ’s disciple. Baptism illustrates this truth. “Baptism is a secret, severe water which drives all reason down into the depth to die with Christ and be buried with Him.”²³ Only after dying with Christ can one rise with Christ and partake of Christ’s gifts, the treasures of his kingdom. What makes this possible? Christ’s humanity. In no way does Marpeck denigrate the importance of Christ’s deity. Far from it, only the divine Son can make the Father known, and only the Father can make known the divine Son—but the vehicle which makes this happen is the Son’s humanity. To borrow from Anselm, Christ must be the God-Man. Furthermore, the salvation that we receive from the Son for the Father’s glory results in the Son sealing us with the Holy Spirit, establishing eternal peace in our hearts. Consequently, we have great assurance for our salvation since “no disaster may come eternally near the dwelling which is God and man eternally, Jesus Christ Himself, in whom all believers dwell and He in them.”²⁴ Again, notice the underlying Trinitarian orthodoxy and the focus on Christ’s humanity to make salvation possible. Notice also that Jesus’s suffering, humiliation, death, and resurrection victory become the pattern for the believer’s life. 

Marpeck follows with a word about the faithful having their dwelling place in the Temple of Christ’s body. After Christ’s body had been broken on the cross and in the humiliation of his descent into hell, Christ raised it up on the third day; subsequently, the “hearts of all the faithful ascended with Him, and their hearts were made temples and dwellings of God, in which the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit live, govern, and reign in righteousness, godliness, faithfulness, and truth, from now until eternity.”²⁵ Drawing on John 4:23-24, Marpeck writes that the faithful dwell in the temple of Christ’s body; it is here in “this eternal, sublime, and holiest place” that God may be understood and experienced. Here, in the temple of Christ’s body is pardon, rest, and everything needed for life. Here are found all the treasures of God has given us, which had been hidden in Christ, but now are opened to us since Christ’s body was broken on the cross. 

Referencing Isaiah 61:2 Marpeck expounds on these treasures. These gifts are given to us for two reasons: to know God our Creator and Father and to serve each other. This is a lesson learned from the incarnate life of Christ: he came to serve, not to rule. Marpeck applies the example of Christ by pointing out that we are to practice “with unwavering faith and certain hope, love toward our neighbor, and thus prove our love of God;” to do this is our greatest joy.²⁶ This pattern of knowing God and loving service for neighbor has its foundation in the humanity of Christ, both in its provision and in its practice. Christ in his incarnate life on earth has revealed the Father and has given his disciples the pattern of a life of service. 

The first gift, or treasure, mentioned by Marpeck is the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is given for indwelling the disciple and making it possible to know the Father, as well as making it possible to accomplish our mission. The reference to Isaiah 61:2 speaks not only of the Lord, but of his “servants, messengers, and ambassadors and their office, and what they are to accomplish in the power of the Spirit.”²⁷ In the power of the Spirit Christ’s disciples, like the Lord in Isaiah 61, are to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord’s favor, proclaiming the gospel to the captives, healing wounded hearts, and comforting those who mourn. 

Effectively proclaiming the “acceptable year” of the Lord’s favor means that Christ has given his servants “a happy anointing instead of a stench, a beautiful garment instead of a heavy heart.”²⁸ This “garment” is an innocence of sin, which is another of Christ’s treasures opened for us. The innocence for sin would not describe life before becoming Christ’s disciple, but it should describe the disciple’s life after faith in Christ since Christ has paid for and pardoned sin. The disciple’s life now is one of obedience to Christ’s commands and following Christ’s example. The service as Christ’s ambassadors means that “all the chosen of God must strive to follow the pattern and example given to us by the Lord Himself.”²⁹ The disciple is not above his master; and since Christ’s life has proven the validity of this life, the disciple must follow Jesus’s example as proof of being his servant. 

A third treasure of Christ opened to us is the Scriptures. “Through His divine skill, He has unlocked and released the Scripture, the most sublime and learned old and new treasure, written for Himself by the Holy Spirit.”³⁰ All of the Old Testament Scriptures—the law, the prophets, and the writings—point to Jesus, who fulfills and makes clear its meaning. Christ’s humanity unlocks the meaning of the Scriptures. Marpeck fully embraces the deity of Christ, but this can only be revealed and known through his humanity. Quoting Colossians 2:9, “according to the fullness of understanding and knowledge of the Father, the fullness of Godhead appeared bodily in Christ Himself.”³¹ In doing so, Jesus clarifies the difference between the old and the new treasures. The old treasure was given because of sin and pointed Israel to the future grace which came in Jesus Christ. The law, the prophets, and John the Baptist pointed forward to Christ who, as the Lamb of God, would take away the sin of the world. This was fulfilled on the cross of Christ. Now that the old has been completed, the new treasure of grace and truth has come with Christ. The old treasure still ministers to those who are in Adam because they still live under sin. But, for those who repent and believe in Christ, the new treasure is offered. Marpeck spells this out in much greater detail in “Preface to the ‘Explanation of the Testaments’” in which he distinguishes the testaments as “yesterday” (the Old Testament) and “today” (the New Testament), “promise” (OT) and “fulfillment” (NT).³² 

Another treasure which the humanity of Christ gives is Christ’s indwelling in his people. As Marpeck describes it, “He fills His servants with His skill, wisdom, and understanding in order that they may administer in the right manner, according to time, measure, and appointment, His treasures and wealth.”³³ What makes this possible is the fact that Christ himself is the “true treasure.” More specifically, “His body and true humanity are, moreover, the genuine temple and treasure-house, the true dwelling and abode of God.”³⁴ As mentioned previously, for Marpeck the humanity of Christ is the key to revealing God because the fulness of deity dwells bodily in Christ (Colossians 2:9). But that revelation does not remain outside the believer. Marpeck moves immediately from God’s dwelling in Christ’s body to Christ indwelling his people. “As true dwellings, treasure-houses, and temples of God, in which the Father and the Son themselves, the most sublime treasures, live and remain in the power of the Spirit, the hearts of all the faithful are prepared and built up by Him [for the enjoyment of] these treasures.”³⁵ 

Next, Marpeck spells out the significance of Christ’s indwelling by asserting that Christ, as High Priest, by taking up residence in the hearts of his faithful, makes them fellow priests. Priests have a responsibility to minister, and they must do so in a particular way. Christ has been given to us in our own “earthen vessels” that require great care since they can be easily damaged. Thus, we must give careful attention to our body and soul that we are not “exposed to offense.” Marpeck explains that this means that we “should allow ourselves neither to be offended nor scandalized by anything.”³⁶ The believer is not to attack a neighbor, fight in the arrogance of the flesh, nor give any place to the lust of the flesh; to do any of these things would damage one’s own life and, possibly, the neighbor’s life. Christ’s indwelling constrains the disciple so that his freedom in Christ does not permit him to act in ways that damage the name of Christ or the neighbor. To act with conceit, cunning, or sinful vices is to abuse Christ’s love, slandering Christ’s name, and destroying his treasures and gifts. Thus, Christ’s indwelling of his people will mean a life of holiness and virtue. To summarize, Christ’s indwelling his people equips them for all they need to serve as his fellow priests; the behavior of Christ’s people should reflect his character. As Marpeck explains it, “Therefore, my beloved ones, let us be aware of the High Priest Christ in our hearts, and of His anointment of us, with the oil of gladness, comfort, and peace. This anointing gives us all learning, wisdom, understanding, and comprehension, and then we may understand what is best and most pleasing to the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ.”³⁷ The treasure of Christ’s indwelling is the gift of equipping for service, with a transformed character. 

Another treasure that the ark of Christ’s body provides is spiritual gifts. Christ has bestowed spiritual gifts on every believer for building up the body of Christ. These spiritual gifts represent the “adornment and finery” of the Holy Spirit. Marpeck asserts that there “can be no unendowed member who has not been given something of the treasures of Christ, such as virtues and the fruit of the Holy Spirit on the body of Christ.”³⁸ These treasures are given by the Father only to the sanctified. Holiness is a key issue with spiritual gifts. Marpeck explains, “His holiness is the pearls, treasures, precious stones, and gems with which He has sanctified Himself for His own.”³⁹ These treasures, which extend from Christ himself, are the means through which God’s people serve and sanctify one another “with all the virtues and gifts” of Christ. Three things should be noted here. First, the section on spiritual gifts reveals Marpeck’s inherent Trinitarianism. Second, the spiritual gifts come to the believer only because Christ gives what he himself possessed, not only as the divine Son of God, but also as the human Son of Man. Third, spiritual gifts provide the perfect segue to his view of the church. 

At this point in the letter, the Anabaptist pastor switches metaphors for the church from Christ’s body to that of Christ’s bride. This he does in order to emphasize the importance of serving above ruling. Marpeck asserts that the church as the bride of Christ nurtures God’s children in sanctification. “The Father of our Lord Jesus Christ desires and expects the mother, the bride of Christ and sanctified by Christ, to nourish, raise, and preserve the children for the Father in all sanctification, adornment, and ornament.”⁴⁰ This “housekeeping,” as Marpeck refers to it, is demanded of Christ’s disciples as children of Christ’s bride. Thus, the church and its members are to humble themselves in service. To serve, rather than rule, is to imitate Christ, to do as he did “in the time of His human life.” Marpeck adds that those who serve out of pride, and those who refuse to serve, relate to Christ as the unbelieving world does, seeking to rule and not serve. In seeking to rule rather than serve, one imitates the devil and the outcast angels. To follow Jesus Christ is to humble oneself and serve others, not rule over others. 

To understand God’s purpose for the church, one must see Christ in the humility of his humanity. For the church to fulfill its calling to serve means being adorned with the same garments as Christ himself. It is with these “treasures, gems, and ornaments, the fullness of grace and truth, with which He Himself has adorned the temple of His body . . . .”⁴¹ Marpeck explains that this adornment refers to the virtues and gifts of the Holy Spirit, the same virtues and gifts with which the Father “clad” the Son. Thus, as Christ’s fellow priests, his people should be “clad” with the same clothes as Christ himself. The Anabaptist leader argues that these virtues and gifts are more splendid than the garments of the priests in the Old Testament. However, he adds one crucial point: the means by which these virtues are developed in the believer occurs through tribulation. Through the fire of suffering the believer is purified, cleansed, and made constant.⁴² 

42 Only through the tribulation of the cross does God write the commandments of Christ on the broken hearts of Christ’s disciples. Consequently, one is not adorned with earthly gold, but with spiritual gold by the finger of God on the human heart, so that it will endure forever. 

Humility is how we see Christ the Son of Man adorned; we do not see his innate eternal, preexistent heavenly glory, but his adornment of the Spirit by God the Father during his earthly life. Though the eternal Son of God possessed these virtues inherently as God, it is in the course of history that we see the Father clothe Jesus the Son of Man with these virtues through the Holy Spirit. It is crucial that the identical virtues that clothed Jesus Christ should also clothe his followers, involving the same agency and the same process: from God the Father by the agency of the Holy Spirit through the process of tribulation. As a result, the members of the church serve having been clothed with Christ’s virtues, i.e., the fruit of the Spirit: “love, faith, hope, patience, joy, peace, long-suffering, goodness, kindness, gentleness, purity, etc.”⁴³ This should be the church’s character, formed by the triune God based upon Christ’s humanity. 

Marpeck next specifically highlights two of these virtues: holiness and patience. Holiness begins with understanding that our “apparel is justification and chastisement: it is the grace of our heavenly Father, who does not allow His own to appear in the shame of nakedness.”⁴⁴ He explains that we are to keep “our priestly garments” clean and unsoiled so that we not be ashamed by having them removed from us. Since everything about us belongs to the priestly office and the temple of God in which he dwells, everything about us should be holy. Note that for Marpeck, justification is not used strictly in the forensic sense of Luther’s thought, but in a broader sense that would include a transformational sense in addition to the legal sense. He includes it with “chastisement,” which would refer to the process of purging sin through suffering and affliction.⁴⁵ This brings the focus back to the importance of holiness in the church. 

Marpeck argues strongly that no priest serving in the temple is ever justified in using unholy utensils; to use an unholy instrument brings disastrous consequences. “Whenever so-called Christians do use unclean utensils, and it happens today, God’s anger flares.”⁴⁶ Marpeck indicates that once unholy utensils are used, the Holy Spirit withdraws his gifts from the church, leaving the people terribly damaged. He indicates that such was happening in the churches in his day. One would presume he is thinking of both the Roman Catholic and the Lutheran churches since he references the deception that was occurring “with the figurative treasures, temple, and priests.” Marpeck adds “In and for His wrath, God uses such unclean and unholy vessels outside of the house. But in the house and temple of the Father, our High Priest uses only pure, holy vessels in all holiness.”⁴⁷ What “utensils” is Marpeck referencing? Based on where his argument takes him next, it is likely a reference to the use of the sword and the practice of coercing faith that is used by both the Protestant princes and the Catholic emperor. The historical context of the Schmalkald War certainly fits this scenario. The sword is for the civil government—it is what God uses outside the church—but not for the church. The holy “utensils” used by the church are the fruit of the Spirit, the very character of Christ himself: love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, gentleness, patience, and self-control. Holiness means the true church of Christ serves as Jesus did; it does not seek to rule, as the world outside the church seeks to do. 

Not only should holiness be the attire of the church, but patience should be the fruit of such holiness. Indeed, patience is the ark of the new covenant. “The ark or coffer of the new covenant or testament is the Christ and the patience of faithful saints, who are prepared for the Father’s praise in all patience.”⁴⁸ Patience is the only way to guard and maintain the treasures of Christ. Marpeck seems to make an application in light of the then contemporary Schmalkald War. Though both the forces of Charles V and the German princes are battling to determine which faith will be the faith of the empire, Marpeck faults them both for completely missing Jesus Christ and the purpose of his coming in the flesh. They sought to impose faith; however, such a policy can never achieve its goal. Marpeck contends that impatience actually destroys the ark of the covenant—it does not open the ark’s treasure for humanity’s benefit and salvation, but rather, “all the treasures of our temple, that is, of our hearts, are lost, pillaged, and stolen, and the temple of God is destroyed and broken down.”⁴⁹ Comparing the Holy Roman emperor and the German princes (and their respective forces) to Philistines, these worldly forces have no place for patience: “The ark of the New Testament is not compatible with the Philistines, I mean the world. The impatience of the Philistines opposes the true patience of Christ.”⁵⁰ Those who think they are fighting for the Chrisitan faith are actually fighting against Christ. 

Referencing 1 Samuel 6, Marpeck summarizes what was happening in this battle between the Catholic emperor and the Lutheran princes. Because the ark of the New Testament is always accompanied by tribulation, both groups rejected the ark of God and sent it away since they want nothing to do with the affliction of Christ’s cross. As Marpeck states it, “In their secret parts, the tribulation of Christ is a plague and a shame to them.”⁵¹ Despite appearances to the contrary, many who allegedly accept the Gospel show themselves impatient because they refuse to accept the suffering that the Gospel truly brings; they want Christ’s glory, but not his humility. Thus, these “Philistines” send the ark away, refusing to trust Christ’s way, but instead they trust in human power, seeking to coerce the faith of the populace. Such a course of action is contrary to Christ, who does not don armor and sword to draw people to himself. In their rejection of the way of Christ, those who seek to enforce faith do not realize that they are actually destroying the people’s faith. Thus, “all who support a human, forcibly imposed faith and all who claim the Word of faith, but who trust and depend upon human coercion and power; like Peter, they will be driven to a denial.”⁵² To use arms to impose faith is to know Christ only after the flesh, only being concerned with temporal aid and saving earthly life and property. Such an approach knows nothing of the Holy Spirit’s gifts and treasures. In fact, they are like Judas who betray Christ “for the price of shame.” What motivates the enforcers of faith? Envy, hatred, and vain honor. These are not the treasures of the ark of Christ’s new covenant. Those who hold to an enforced faith cannot produce true Christian fruit.⁵³ Marpeck was perceptive; he saw only too well the reality of impatience with Christ’s way. Both emperor and princes completely missed the point of Christ’s incarnation. Their faulty Christology led to their downfall. 

What have the teachers of the coerced faith to show for themselves? According to Marpeck, nothing of value. Indeed, they are teachers appointed by violence for carnal gain, operating under the protection of men, having stolen their teachings (“human sophistry of Scripture”) from stagnant water to build churches with crumbling mortar.⁵⁴ The result is buildings that collapse, destroyed by the very violence that built these churches in the first place. This is quite an indictment. The current situation, as Marpeck viewed it, was that these crumbling edifices were failing because of God’s judgment on them. The Holy Spirit has judged their unbelief and cast them down with the righteousness of Christ. However, the true church should not worry, for “all the household furnishings of God, the treasures, virtues, and gifts of the Holy Spirit, are safely kept and locked away from the enemies of God.”⁵⁵ The world’s violence and aggression can never destroy the ark, which is the patience of Christ. Drawing on Hebrews 10:35-37 Marpeck encourages his readers to arm their souls with patience in order to preserve the treasures of the ark. 

Because the Holy Spirit safely preserves Christ’s treasures, the church is prepared to serve in such a way that the kingdom of God truly expands. As Marpeck explains, “Therefore, all external service of Christ, and of those who belong to Him in the time of this mortal life, serves and prepares the way for the Holy Spirit.”⁵⁶ These externals include preaching the Gospel, teaching, baptism, the Lord’s Supper, foot washing, miracles, and church discipline. All of these things prepare the way for the Holy Spirit to do his work. According to Marpeck, both the preparation for the Spirit and the Spirit’s work result from Christ’s humiliation. First, “In the time of His mortal life, Christ did not rule; He served. Thus, He sent His own to serve, not to rule. Man is to be served by Christ and His own, and man is to be prepared for the Holy Spirit”⁵⁷ The externals of preaching, teaching, baptism, Supper, and church discipline are the means of preparing people for the Holy Spirit: “But wherever this service of Christ is not carried out in all its provisions, there the Holy Spirit cannot do His work.”⁵⁸ Contrary to what some believe, namely the Spiritualists, the external practices of the church are essential as they provide the preparatory tools the Holy Spirit uses to bring the truth of the Gospel to a person inwardly. These things are also a Christ-commanded service. As these are done according to Jesus’s instruction, “the Holy Spirit, as true God with Father and Son, can move where He will, namely, in those whom the Father draws to Christ, to the same apostolic church and bodily service, preaching and teaching, baptism, foot washing, and the Lord’s Supper.”⁵⁹ The Spirit works through these externals of the apostolic church to regenerate those who have submitted to Christ in faith. As the true church faithfully carries out its service as Christ commanded, it “prepares, cultivates, fertilizes and, as God’s helper, breaks again the hearts of men.”⁶⁰ Referencing 1 Corinthians 3:6-9, Marpeck states the church plants the seed of the word of truth within the heart where it is believed, then watered with baptism. As the church members serve, the Spirit works through the external service of the church to increase and grow the church as He wills.⁶¹ The mission of the church is accomplished as it takes the Gospel to all peoples. Thus, the externals of the church also serve an evangelistic role. Note that the essential element is the connection to Christ’s humanity and humiliation. The apostolic church must practice the outward elements of service to prepare the human heart for the Spirit’s regenerating work, resulting in the growth of the church and expansion of Christ’s kingdom. The foundation, then, for the church’s mission and growth is the humanity and humility of Christ. Christ came to serve, not rule; therefore, his servants are to serve, not rule. Appropriately, the church’s mission and evangelism are based on Christ’s own mission as he took on human flesh to save all who believe in him. His mission is our mission; therefore, it is proper that his people carry out that mission in the same manner that Christ did.

Writing in the context of Catholic and Protestant forces opposing one another in armed conflict in order to enforce the faith, Marpeck points out that both err regarding the true church. A coerced faith is no faith at all. An external, coerced faith deceives people into thinking that Christ is found “here or there,” that is, with whichever group has the power to enforce their religion. However, since “the earthly and true service of Christ did not come into force in the hearts of the apostles without the moving of the Holy Spirit, how can the forced and coerced faith, or the faith based on the old custom, stand before God?”⁶² In a word, it cannot. The way of Jesus Christ was not coercion, but humble service. Christ came not in glory, but in humiliation. Therefore, the way of the church in this world is serving not ruling, humility not glory. Glory comes at Jesus’s return; now is the time of humiliation and service.

Pilgrim Marpeck’s Christology

Pilgrim Marpeck did not write a systematic theology. His writings are occasional and contained an assumed theology in addressing particular theological, ecclesiastical, and inter-personal issues. It will help to draw out the theology inherent in Marpeck’s writings to present his Christology in more systematic terms. While the primary source will be “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” other works will be consulted for added depth and clarification.

God as Trinity

As the summary above indicates, Pilgrim Marpeck focused heavily on the humanity of Jesus Christ in his incarnation. It bears repeating that Marpeck wrote in trinitarian categories with Christ’s incarnation serving as the hermeneutical key to Scripture.⁶³ While Marpeck’s hermeneutical key may be the incarnate Christ, the belief in God as Trinity undergirds it. Marpeck develops several pastoral and theological insights, and in doing so he demonstrates the foundational importance of God as Trinity for all of them. Marpeck is a pastor and church leader, not a university professor. Thus, congregations and individuals comprise his audience. Consequently, Marpeck’s writing about the triune God is not academic or speculative. He is not concerned to expound on the inter-Trinitarian relationships, nor does he make any distinction between the imminent Trinity and the economic Trinity. Instead, he assumes historical orthodoxy regarding the Trinity in order to explain the Christian faith and the ministry of the church. In doing so, Marpeck provides an outstanding example of pastoral theology which relates the triune God to the everyday life and ministry of the church.

One does not get far into the letter to discover the importance of trinitarian orthodoxy. Christ, the Lord himself, is the treasure in whom are “hidden all the treasures of the secret will and pleasure of the Father,” thus revealing the Father. Alluding to John 1:18, Marpeck notes that Father and Son are mutually glorified as Christ the Son reveals the Father and the Father reveals that “Christ is the Son of the living God.”⁶⁴ Not only in revelation about God and Christ, but also for the believer’s security in the midst of a hostile world, the “faithful have their dwelling and safety in the temple of Christ’s body. Thus, the Father and the Son, after the manner of deity, have their dwelling in the hearts of all the faithful through the action of the Spirit.”⁶⁵ Indeed, the hearts of “all the faithful ascended with Him and their hearts were made temples and dwellings of God, in which God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit live, govern, and reign in righteousness, godliness, faithfulness, and truth, from now until eternity.”⁶⁶ The triune God is not distant or abstract, but dwells among believers as they dwell in Christ. The indwelling Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are actively ruling, transforming, and working through the disciple. Marpeck states that since no one can call Christ “Lord” except by the Holy Spirit and one cannot do the Father’s will apart from the Son, it “follows that those who are in Christ do not themselves live, but Christ lives in them (Gal. 2:[20]).”⁶⁷ Note the way Marpeck describes the Spirit’s work. “Without the artistry and teaching of the Holy Spirit, who pours out the love, which is God, into the hearts of all the faithful, which surpasses all reason and understanding, everything is in vain.”⁶⁸ Such artistry, Marpeck explains, comes from the Spirit who proceeds from the Father and Son, bearing witness to Father and Son in the heart of the believer. 

Furthermore, all of the gifts and treasures that adorn the new temple of Christ’s body are given to Christ the Son and his fellow priests (the faithful) by the Father through the working of the Holy Spirit.⁶⁹ This temple is cleansed and purified by the blood of Christ, and the “washing, cleansing, and purifying in baptism are the basis of faith in the forgiveness of sins.”⁷⁰ Marpeck adds that this bears witness to belief in the Holy Spirit and the Father’s truth. Thus, the establishment of the new covenant, with Christ serving as High Priest, is founded on the reality of the triune God. What follows is that the true church is not simply the place where the externals of the Christian faith are practiced, but where they are practiced according to Christ’s instructions and example along with the Holy Spirit’s inner witness. Thus, the church must be indwelt and empowered by the triune God, which is essential for the church’s identity and service. 

Obviously, much more could be written about Marpeck’s understanding of the Trinity, but a few key points need to be highlighted. First, he is fully orthodox in his understanding of God. Marpeck’s understanding of the Trinity is in full compliance with the ancient creeds and with the Catholic and Protestant churches. Second, Marpeck’s language is clearly biblical; he utilizes clear and exact biblical language in his references to God as triune. Third, Marpeck’s focus is more pastoral than academic. This is not to suggest his understanding is shallow—it certainly is not. As a pastor writing occasional letters to address needs of churches and individuals, his focus is on the church and its needs. In his pastoral theology, Marpeck presents the triune God as essential and active. The Father, Son, and Holy Spirit work together to reveal God, to prove salvation, to indwell the believer and the church, to give security, to empower his people and church to remain faithful, and to gift the church with the treasures of Christ to serve as Christ served. For Marpeck, the doctrine of the Trinity was not a doctrine that made God unrelatable, difficult to comprehend, or distant, but a doctrine showing that God is active, near to hand—indeed indwelling church and individual—and very relatable to believers.

The Deity of Christ 

Marpeck’s trinitarianism leads him to the heart of his theology: Christology. This in itself is not out of the ordinary, for many of the sixteenth century reformers did the same, including Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli. What is different about Marpeck, though, is the intense focus he placed on the incarnation of Christ. Though Marpeck focuses on Christ’s incarnation, his Christology is fully orthodox and certainly affirms the Christology of the creeds. For example, in “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” in pointing out the mutual revealing of the Father to the Son and the Son to the Father, Marpeck affirms that “Jesus Christ is the Son of the living God.”⁷¹ As Marpeck describes Christ as the Father’s gift to us, he affirms that Jesus is the “same Lord, King, and true God” who has given himself with all his treasures in his work of atonement. Though one may wish for Marpeck to expound on these statements of Christ’s deity, it is enough for his purposes simply to state it as the underlying reality that makes both revelation and the atonement possible. Furthermore, following his descent into hell, Christ himself took back his life by means of his glory, dominion, and power. Marpeck adds that Christ, as the true light, broke the power of darkness and returned to life by his own power. Having taken his life back, “He ascended, and seated Himself to the right of the majesty of God the Father and in the glorification of the Father, with that eternal, preexistent glory which He had with the Father before the foundations of the world were laid.”⁷² If Marpeck’s Christology were not orthodox, he would not have affirmed Christ’s preexistence with the Father, or his power to take his life back. 

In a later letter, “Concerning the Humanity of Christ,” Marpeck offers insights into Christ’s humanity and some advice for the Christian life. Marpeck begins with a brief explanation of Christ’s humanity, focusing on Christ as the Son of Man whose humanity “is taken up into God the Father and God the Father into the Son, who from eternity has been one essence, Spirit, and God.”⁷³ Marpeck then explains that in Christ dwells the fullness of the Godhead bodily which leads directly to believers being filled with the Holy Spirit. Indeed, no one can say anything unless Christ, as Son of God and Son of Man, works and rules in them. Though Marpeck is addressing the meaning of Christ’s humanity for the Christian life, his affirmation that Jesus Christ is both Son of God and one essence with God is clear. Pilgrim Marpeck’s Christology is fully orthodox, affirming the Son’s deity, his oneness with the Father (and the Spirit), his preexistence with the Father (and the Spirit), and his distinction in terms of person from the Father (and the Spirit). Marpeck may have focused his attention on Christ’s humanity, but he clearly affirmed Christ’s deity along orthodox lines.

The Humanity and Work of Christ

Marpeck’s emphasis on the humanity of Christ stands as one of his most significant theological traits, highlighting Christ’s work along with it. Before dealing with Christ’s work, it must be noted that Marpeck is very clear and precise about the nature of Christ’s humanity. He is insistent that Christ’s human flesh must be the same as all of humanity. Marpeck unwaveringly rejects the idea of Christ’s “Celestial Flesh” as espoused by Melchior Hoffman and others. Marpeck is adamant that Jesus Christ’s flesh is the same as our human flesh. Early on “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” the Anabaptist leader states that Christ “was born to the Father from the race of man, for the sake of man.”⁷⁴ A few pages later, he affirms that Christ “was born of the virgin from the generation of the fathers.”⁷⁵ Both phrases, “from the race of man” and “from the generation of the fathers,” are intended to affirm that Jesus’s body was of the same kind as every other human being. Marpeck understands the importance of this for Christ’s atonement. “This bread [Christ’s body] [is] His broken or prepared flesh and blood, given up for our life. The pure flesh and blood of the virgin Mary prepared His flesh and blood for us, and this heavenly bread, which the Word made flesh, raises us from death to life.”⁷⁶ Marpeck insists that the body of Christ received its flesh from Mary and from Mary’s ancestors; thus, Christ’s flesh is not celestial in origin, but earthly. Marpeck is consistent in his conviction that Christ assumed the same flesh as all of humanity. In “Concerning the Humanity of Christ,” written eight years after “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” Marpeck proclaims that Jesus Christ is the way, truth, and life “in true humanity by nature and kind born of the generation of men in and of Mary, the pure virgin, a true, pure immutable Man.”⁷⁷ In terms of Christ’s divine nature, he is without beginning and the everlasting God from eternity. But in terms of his human nature, Christ “was not newly created [i.e. of heavenly flesh] but was born of pre-created flesh of human generation in the body of Mary.”⁷⁸ To answer the objection that Christ’s humanity requires a human father, Marpeck responds that just as the first, figurative Adam had no father but God who created him and the lifeless earth for a mother, so the essential, last Adam has no Father but God and the “earth of the living, that is, human creaturely generation” in the person of Mary as his mother.⁷⁹ 

Marpeck also understands that Christ’s having the same flesh as the rest of humanity is essential for our salvation. He takes issue with Caspar Schwenckfeld’s view of Christ’s heavenly flesh, overall, and about the idea that Christ has cast aside his humanity since he has finished his earthly work. Marpeck sees serious implications regarding salvation in Schwenckfeld’s position.

In the above citations Schwenckfeld attests clearly that the flesh of Christ was not creaturely before his death. Therefore, it could not be called “a new creature” after his resurrection since it never was one before his death. The flesh that died with Christ was also raised with him; it was restored and transfigured and glorified—it and none other. It has a relationship with the mortal flesh of all other Christians; through Christ it is and will be restored and be a new creature in the sense of the text which was quoted [Heb. 1]. Otherwise, it would follow that God did not take our old, mortal flesh as the medium of restoration. It means that the same flesh was not brought to life for everlasting glory or suffering but that God created a new and different flesh. That is a vast, terrible, and destructive error.⁸⁰

He adds that it is a great comfort for the believer to know our human flesh, which is Christ’s humanity, now sits at the Father’s right hand. Though he does not quote Gregory of Nazianzus, Marpeck is certainly in line with Gregory’s famous statement, “For that which He has not assumed He has not healed; but that which is united to His Godhead is also saved.”⁸¹ It is the very earthly flesh of humanity that is united to the Godhead in Christ, and as a result, is honored in Christ. Consequently, Jesus Christ is honored as Son of God and as Son of Man.⁸² To summarize, Marpeck understands the importance of Christ’s physical flesh being of the exact nature as the rest of humanity. If his flesh is different, as is the case with the “Celestial Flesh” idea, then Christ is not one with us, cannot atone for human sin, and is not qualified to be our Savior. Furthermore, Christ could not serve as our example, for we could not follow one whose humanity is not like ours. Thus, human salvation, reconciliation with God, and a life of discipleship hinges on Christ’s sharing our human nature.

Having clarified the nature of Christ’s humanity, Marpeck integrally links Christ’s work to his humanity. Marpeck understood that, while Christ may be glorified now that he has been resurrected and has ascended to the Father’s right hand, we have not yet experienced this. We still live in the “in between,” in the present world dominated by sin and opposition to Christ. Because of this, the pattern for the believer and for Christ’s church is not Christ in glory, but Christ in humility during his incarnation. Marpeck lists several reasons for the importance of Christ’s humanity. First, without Christ’s coming in the flesh, there is no revelation of the Father. Marpeck insists that “without the revelation of the Son no creature in heaven or on earth can recognize the Father’s work (Matt. 11; John 5). . . . For that reason the Son assumed human nature, to do human, bodily works—speaking words and doing deeds.”⁸³ Seeing Jesus physically, being the embodiment of the Godhead in human form, watching him work miracles and interact with people, and hearing him speak audibly was the only certain way of revealing the Father. 

Second, the Son of God had to assume human flesh to accomplish the other major purpose: “He was born to the Father [as Son of Man] from the race of man, for the sake of man. He was born to liberate man from the power of the devil, sin, death, and hell, that is, from the guilt of Adam into which all men have come.”⁸⁴ In describing Christ’s atoning work, Marpeck utilizes both substitution language and victory language. He asserts that the Father “has given Him [Christ] for the sake of man, and delivered Him into the suffering and pain of death, even to condemnation, as a salvation for men.”⁸⁵ Marpeck adds that there would be no need for Christ’s suffering had Adam not sinned, but that once sin entered the picture Christ’s suffering became a necessity for our sakes—clear substitution language. Shortly thereafter, Marpeck explains that the Lord Jesus Christ has “liberated His people from their eternal burden”—clear victory language—by putting “it on His own shoulders and fastened it to the cross.”⁸⁶

Regarding the descent into hell, both motifs of substitution and victory appear. Christ descended into hell to complete his humiliation, remaining “in death and hell until He completely paid, for our sake, the guilt of sin.” In describing the reason for the descensus ad inferno, Marpeck explains that the Father had locked the guilt of sin in death and hell. As a result, Christ in his “human poverty” has assumed the responsibility for us, becoming “the payer of the debt, the true warrantor” who descended into the depths of hell with our sins, having no sin of his own.⁸⁷ A few lines later, Marpeck describes how Christ victoriously took his life back again in his resurrection. In discussing the difference between the “old treasure” of the law of Moses with the “new treasure” through Christ, Marpeck states that the new treasure came on the cross as “His death and blood, offered up for the remission and forgiveness of sin, fulfilled grace and truth.”⁸⁸ Again, there is no missing Marpeck’s use of the language of substitution and sacrifice. There is also no missing his language of victory. Marpeck understood the atoning work of Christ within the traditional historical terms of orthodoxy, using all that Scripture had to offer to explain it. He made use of both satisfaction and Christus Victor terms. He did not lock himself into one category or another. Marpeck serves as a good example that substitution and victory belong together for securing salvation. His style of biblicism serves as a model for the task of theology because we meet in Marpeck a pastor who is writing theology for the church.

Not only did Christ’s humanity reveal the Father and make salvation possible, but it defines the Christian life. Christ in his incarnation is the ark of the new covenant that had to be burst open at the cross to give to us God’s treasures. These gifts include the sending of the Holy Spirit, victory over sin and the devil, and the unlocking of the true meaning of Scripture. All of this “has been revealed and learned first through His holy humanity.”⁸⁹ First, Jesus’s life on earth has provided us with the example of how to live life while we await glorification, which is essential as he has chosen us as his ambassadors to serve in this present world. As Christ’s ambassadors, we are to live by the same principles of Jesus himself. This will involve a life of suffering, as was Jesus’s pattern during his incarnation. As Marpeck states, “taking upon ourselves the cross and affliction to which Christ calls us and to follow him in it, that is the narrow gate and the small way (Matt. 7, 10, 16).”⁹⁰ The humanity of Christ that makes salvation possible also brings with it the reality that the believer must be condemned with and in Christ.⁹¹ The ark of Christ’s body could bring the blessing of God’s treasures only through Christ’s tribulation; in the same way, Christ’s disciples have to expect that the reception of the new covenant is accompanied by tribulation.⁹² Marpeck understands the Christian life in the same terms as other Anabaptists at this time—it a cross-life, a life of suffering and affliction, the same pattern set by Christ’s humanity during his incarnation. Despite the call to a life of the cross, Christ’s humanity has provided the treasures needed to endure the affliction. “He fills His servants with His skill, wisdom, and understanding in order that they may administer in the right manner, according to time, measure, and appointment, His treasures and wealth.”⁹³ This makes it possible for the disciple to live a holy life, one avoiding sin and anything that would scandalize the name of Christ. The humanity of Christ also provides Christ’s followers to receive spiritual gifts for service. These include the virtues of Christ and the fruit of the Holy Spirit. This service and these gifts are to be practiced within the community of the church and for its mission. 

Every member of the church is endowed with some giftedness for service. However, this is not simply an individual issue; God’s people can only bear the character of Christ if the church as the mother of believers and as the bride of Christ does her job of nourishing, rearing, and preserving “the Father’s children in all sanctification, adornment, and ornament.”⁹⁴ Such “housekeeping” matters, as Marpeck refers to them, are demanded of “the mother and bride of Christ herself,” but must be done through the church members themselves. It is worth noting that Marpeck also views the church as a continuation of Christ’s incarnation since the church is the body of Christ on earth. Neal Blough has observed that “Pilgram Marpeck’s Trinitarian Christology points to an understanding of the church as ‘sacramental,’ i.e. a visible manifestation of an invisible reality.”⁹⁵ 

Thus, the church should be clad in the same garments as Christ himself, namely, with the virtues and the gifts of the Sprit, because they are all Christ’s fellow priests.⁹⁶ Also, Christ’s mission is now carried out by the church. As Christ carried out the mission as a servant, not a ruler, so the church should emulate Jesus in its mission: serve, not rule, and definitely not coerce faith. Such was the practice of both Protestants and Catholics during Marpeck’s time. The church should be adorned as the incarnate Christ was adorned, coming down from heaven and humbling himself, writing the Father’s commandments on broken hearts of flesh, adorned with the spiritual gold of love. Likewise, the church should serve in humility, with a purged, purified, and persistent love for God and for others. 

Conclusion

Pilgram Marpeck could easily earn the title “Theologian of the Incarnation.” As a pastor who is concerned that his congregation live faithfully during the contentious times in which they lived, this Anabaptist pastor effectively charts a theological course that makes this possible. By focusing on the humanity of Christ in his incarnation, and on Christ’s humility in accomplishing the triune God’s mission, Marpeck establishes a pattern for the Christian faith. The humanity and humility of Christ allows us to embrace a life of discipleship, which includes tribulation and suffering. It also guides us in understanding that the Christian life, lived corporately as the church, is a life of service, not a life of ruling. Serving, not ruling, is what it means to imitate Christ, which is significant for the believer’s faithfulness and for the church’s mission. Contemporary Christianity would do well to learn and practice this truth.

1. Philip Schaff, ed., “The Symbol of Chalcedon,” in The Creeds of Christendom, vol. 2, The Greek and Latin Creeds, 6th edition, revised by David S. Schaff. (1931; repr. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007), 62.  ↩︎
2. John F. Guilmartin, “The Schmalkald War,” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation, vol. 4, ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 15-16. ↩︎
3. Walter Klaassen and William Klassen, Marpeck: A Life of Dissent and Conformity, Studies in Anabaptist and Mennonite History, no. 44 (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 2008), 290-91.  ↩︎
4. Neal Blough, Christ in Our Midst: Incarnation, Church, and Discipleship in the Theology of Pilgram Marpeck, Anabaptist and Mennonite Studies, no. 8 (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 2007), 16.  ↩︎
5. Pilgram Marpeck, The Writings of Pilgram Marpeck, trans. and ed. William Klassen and Walter Klaassen, vol. 2, Classics of the Radical Reformation (1978; repr. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 1999), 507.  ↩︎
6. The best text for a full treatment of Marpeck’s Christology and its implications is Neal Blough’s Christ in Our Midst. This excellent work takes a historical theology approach as it traces the developments of Marpeck’s Christology from his earliest writings through his final letters.  ↩︎
7. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” in The Writings of Pilgram Marpeck, 429.  ↩︎
8. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 429.  ↩︎
9. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 429.  ↩︎
10. The German word used is “leipliche” (modern spelling “leiblich”), meaning “bodily, of the body, corporal.” See Pilgram Marpeck, “Pilgram Marpeck an die Gemeinden in Graubünden, Appenzell, St. Gallen und im Elsaß: Von der Tiefe Christi,” in Briefe und Schriften oberdeutscher Täufer 1527-1555: Das “Kunstbuch” des Jörg Probst Rotenfelder gen. Maler, herausgeg. Heinold Fast, Martin Rothkegel, and Gotfried Seebaß, Quellen zur Geschichte der Täufer, bd. XVII, im Auftrag des Vereins für Reformationsgeschichte, bd. 78 (Heidelberg: Gutersloher Verlaghaus, 2007), 559 (hereafter cited as Kunstbuch). Klaassen and Klassen (The Writings of Pilgram Marpeck) note that the meaning is “bodily, physical,” 582.  ↩︎
11. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 429.  ↩︎
12. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 430. ↩︎
13. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 430.  ↩︎
14. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 431.  ↩︎
15. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 432.  ↩︎
16. Blough, Christ in Our Midst, 199.  ↩︎
17. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 433. ↩︎
18. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 433.  ↩︎
19. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 433.  ↩︎
20. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 434.  ↩︎
21. Blough, Christ in Our Midst, 201.  ↩︎
22. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 434. ↩︎
23. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 435.  ↩︎
24. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 435.  ↩︎
25. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 436. ↩︎
26. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 437.  ↩︎
27. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 438.  ↩︎
28. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 438.  ↩︎
29. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 438.  ↩︎
30. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 439. ↩︎
31. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 439.  ↩︎
32. Pilgram Marpeck, “Preface to the ‘Explanation of the Testaments,’” in The Writings of Pilgrim Marpeck, 555-66.  ↩︎
33. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 440.  ↩︎
34. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 440.  ↩︎
35. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 440. ↩︎
36. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 441.  ↩︎
37. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 442.  ↩︎
38. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 442.  ↩︎
39. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 442. ↩︎
40. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 442-43.  ↩︎
41. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 444. ↩︎
42. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 445.  ↩︎
43. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 445.  ↩︎
44. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 445. ↩︎
45. Marpeck most likely heard the preaching, and read the writings, of Leonhard Schiemer during December 1527 to January 1528. It seems highly likely that Marpeck was influenced by Schiemer, hence Schiemer’s inclusion in the “Marpeck Circle” of Das Kunstbuch. For Schiemer, the suffering of Christ’s cross inwardly is God’s means of purging sin from the believer to form a pure love for God alone. See Leonhard Schiemer, “Letter to the Church of God at Rattenberg, Written in 1527. Found in the Scripture of the Old and New Testament is the three-fold grace (as it is called),” in Sources of South German/Austrian Anabaptism, trans. Walter Klaassen, Frank Friesen, and Werner O. Packull, ed. C. Arnold Snyder, vol. 10, Classics of the Radical Reformation (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press), 76.  ↩︎
46. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 446.  ↩︎
47. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 446. ↩︎
48. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 446. ↩︎
49. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 446-47. ↩︎
50. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 448. ↩︎
51. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 448. ↩︎
52. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 448-49. ↩︎
53. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 450. ↩︎
54. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 452. ↩︎
55. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 446. ↩︎
56. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 453. ↩︎
57. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 454. ↩︎
58. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 454. ↩︎
59. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 454. ↩︎
60. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 454-55. ↩︎
61. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 455. ↩︎
62. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 456. ↩︎
63. Blough, Christ in Our Midst, 19. ↩︎
64. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 429 and 435. ↩︎
65. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 435. ↩︎
66. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 436. ↩︎
67. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 457. ↩︎
68. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 458. ↩︎
69. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 445. ↩︎
70. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 445. ↩︎
71. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 429. ↩︎
72. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 433-34. ↩︎
73. Pilgram Marpeck, “Concerning the Humanity of Christ,” in The Writings of Pilgrim Marpeck, 508. ↩︎
74. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 428. ↩︎
75. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 431. ↩︎
76. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 447. ↩︎
77. Marpeck, “Concerning the Humanity of Christ,” 508. ↩︎
78. Marpeck, “Pilgram Marpeck’s Response to Caspar Schwenckfeld’s Judgment,” 126. ↩︎
79. Marpeck, “Pilgram Marpeck’s Response to Caspar Schwenckfeld’s Judgment,” 126. ↩︎
80. Marpeck, “Pilgram Marpeck’s Response to Caspar Schwenckfeld’s Judgment,” 124-25. ↩︎
81. Gregory of Nazianzus, “To Cledonius the Priest Against Apollinarius (Ep. CI),” in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, second series, vol. 7, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (1894; repr. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2012), 440. ↩︎
82. Marpeck, “Concerning the Humanity of Christ,” 509. ↩︎
83. Pilgram Marpeck, “Pilgram Marpeck’s Response to Caspar Schwenckfeld’s Judgment” in Later Writings by Pilgram Marpeck and his Circle, vol. 1, trans. Walter Klaassen, Werner Packull, and John Rempel, Anabaptist Texts in Translation (Kitchener, Ontario: Pandora Press, 1999), 82. See also, Marpeck, “Concerning the Humility of Christ,” in The Writings of Pilgram Marpeck, 429. ↩︎
84. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 429. ↩︎
85. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 430. ↩︎
86. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 431. ↩︎
87. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 433. ↩︎
88. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 439. ↩︎
89. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 435. ↩︎
90. Marpeck, “Pilgram Marpeck’s Response to Caspar Schwenckfeld’s Judgment,” 83. ↩︎
91. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 434. ↩︎
92. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 448. ↩︎
93. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 440. ↩︎
94. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 443. ↩︎
95. Blough, Christ in Our Midst, 245. Blough brings out much more on this point.  ↩︎
96. Marpeck, “Concerning the Lowliness of Christ,” 444. ↩︎